The flies often feed on the spider's catches before the spider wraps them. In both assemblies we surveyed spidroin diversity by clustering translated sequences containing C-terminal domains with 95% identity. Roberto Lleras and Michael Wieand from Pacific Biosciences assisted with data analysis. b Percent amino acid composition of dragline (major ampullate) fibers (n=3) against major ampullate gland composition (n=1), five most abundant residues color coded as in part a (Glx=glutamine+glutamate). Eisoldt, L., Hardy, J. G., Heim, M. & Scheibel, T. R. The role of salt and shear on the storage and assembly of spider silk proteins. We examined the longest spidroin in each C-terminal cluster and found three were most similar to MaSp1, having GGX and An motifs in repetitive sequence, whereas one was most similar to MaSp2 with combined GPGX, GGX, and An motifs (Fig. Opell, B. D. & Bond, J. E. Capture thread extensibility of orb-weaving spiders: testing punctuated and associative explanations of character evolution. Rev. This was followed by ion-exchange chromatography using an L-8800 Hitachi analyzer coupled to a post-column ninhydrin reaction system to separate and detect amino acids. Sci. The first leg is about 15mm (0.6in) long. Sci. (b) Caerostris darwini MA silk gland showing region of silk protein secretion (tail), silk solution storage sac, and fiber synthesis site (S-shaped spinning duct), indicating two loops joining three duct limbs. Another C. darwini individual (c) and MA gland of Argiope aurantia (d), with arrows pointing to second loop of spinning duct for comparison. The web of Darwins bark spider is remarkable in that it has not only the longest spanning web ever observed, but is among the largest orb webs ever seen, at an area of up to 2.8square metres (30sqft). [6], The spider was described along with a previously undescribed species of fly, which appeared to have a kleptoparasitic relationship with it. EMBnet. 30 relations. 12:30pm Jan 17, 2023. Its silk is the toughest biological material ever studied, over ten times stronger than a similarly-sized piece of Kevlar. Your email address will not be published. Gordon, S. P. et al. Proc. The flies often feed on the spider's catches before the spider wraps them. The Darwin Bark Spider Lives in Montane rainforests in Eastern Madagascar, Montane Rainforests are drier and more open than most other types of rainforests, they have an average rainfall of 80 inches and they are very wndy environments. Scientists are currently researching how the spider is able to weave such a large web over water along with being able to anchor drag lines on either side of a river. We try our very best, but cannot guarantee perfection. Spider silks are formed from spidroins, a family of repetitive structural proteins exhibiting differing expression among the diverse toolkit of spider silk glands7,8,9. 25, 277286 (2008). Garb, J. E., Ayoub, N. A. Nat. MaSp4 is markedly different from the eight MaSps from the genome of another orb-weaver Trichonephila clavipes7 (formerly Nephila clavipes18), with GPGPQ only appearing once in Trichonephila MaSp-g and iterations of this motif are not seen in other species spidroins. Assembled transcriptomes are available at NCBIs TSA database under accession numbers GGUO00000000 and GGTX00000000. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited. The spider was described along with an undescribed species of fly, which appeared to have a kleptoparasitic relationship with it. Correspondence to Trimmed Illumina reads from the two MA gland RNA-Seq libraries were used to estimate abundance of all Trinity assembled transcripts in TPM using Salmon v0.8.2 in quasi-mapping mode53 (Supplementary Data6). Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate three slides at a time, or the slide dot buttons at the end to jump three slides at a time. Image Credits: I.ytimg.com, 4.bp.blogspot.com, 3.bp.blogspot.com, Asknature.org. Accession numbers in Supplementary Data8. The female spider either eats the male counterpart or castrate it post-copulation. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Vienneau-Hathaway, J. M. et al. Biol. We strive to recommend the very best things that are suggested by our community and are things we would do ourselves - our aim is to be the trusted friend to parents. -sheets providing strength)31,36,37,38,39,40. Their webs and weaponry are puny in comparison females have the longest fangs and most potent venom. We thank Paul Yan, Ryan Fitzpatrick, Rasika Sambhare, Lindsay Schulman, Fitzanthony Forsyth, Jennifer Fish, Maria Zapp, and Ellie Kittler for contributions to data collection, Alex Lancaster for comments on the draft, and the MICET staff in Antananarivo, Sahondra Rahanitriniaina, and Honore Rabarison for help in the field. Your email address will not be published. 17, 1290 (2016). Males are redder and lighter brown in colour, again with white hairs on the cephalothorax, abdomen and parts of the appendages further from the body. Vollrath, F. & Knight, D. P. Structure and function of the silk production pathway in the spider Nephila edulis. Darwin's bark spider (Caerostris darwini) is a producer of the largest silk web ever known. Most baby spiders are known as spiderlings, thus a baby Darwin's bark spider is known as a spiderling. This species is not very large and the average Darwin's bark spider size is almost half the size of a Nephila spider. Today 14, 8086 (2011). Darwins bark spider(Caerostris darwini) is anorb-weaver spiderthat produces one of the largest knownorb webs, with anchor lines spanning up to 25metres (82ft). Major ampullate glands from seven C. darwini females were imaged with a dissecting microscope using Zeiss 2.3, along with MA glands from four female Argiope aurantia and three female Trichonephila clavipes. About Darwin's bark spider, a spider that produces the strongest biopolymer known to humanity, and also one of the few non-mammals to engage in oral sex. Being a species found in the wild, this silk orb-web creator does not make a great pet for humans. Martin, M. Cutadapt removes adapter sequences from high-throughput sequencing reads. The transcriptome of Darwins bark spider silk glands predicts proteins contributing to dragline silk toughness. Thus, a suite of novel traits from the level of genes to spinning physiology to silk biomechanics are associated with the unique ecology of Darwins bark spider, presenting innovative designs for engineering biomaterials. and I.A. Here at Kidadl, we have carefully created lots of interesting family-friendly animal facts for everyone to discover! Statistical analyses comparing differences of means were conducted with two-tailed unpaired t tests. =Parawixia bistriata. MrBayes 3.2: efficient Bayesian phylogenetic inference and model choice across a large model space. Both proteins are dominated by glycine and alanine, but proline is almost exclusively found in the repetitive region of MaSp2 (9.116.4% vs. 00.5% in MaSp1, Supplementary Data3a, b and 4a, b). This is because they are the producers of the strongest, largest, and longest-length orb webs ever studied, producing a material that is over ten times tougher than a similarly sized piece of silk or Kevlar. Sequential pH-driven dimerization and stabilization of the N-terminal domain enables rapid spider silk formation. The species was named in honour of the naturalist Charles Darwin, with the description being prepared precisely 150 years after the publication of The Origin of Species, on 24 November 2009. In addition to divergent MaSp spidroins, we describe an unusually long spinning duct associated with C. darwini MA glands. 25, 757768 (2016). et al. Consequently, while MaSp4 retains terminal domains highly similar to typical dragline proteins, its repetitive structural sequence has substantially increased in proline suggesting its adaptive evolution to support C. darwinis giant webs. 2c). Higher proline is linked with greater silk extensibility21,22, and MaSp4s ~32% proline content substantially exceeds the 10.916.3% proline in the Flag spidroin from elastic capture silk (Fig. Species abbreviations as follows: N.c.=Trichonephila clavipes; B.c. & Kuntner, M. Darwins bark spider: giant prey in giant orb webs (Caerostris darwini, Araneae: Araneidae)? A single web might contain about 32 mayflies in one go. Darwin's Bark Spider Caerostris darwini Kuntner & Agnarsson 2010. collect. and I.A. The transcriptome of Darwins bark spider silk glands predicts proteins contributing to dragline silk toughness, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-019-0496-1. After mating, the female spider often captures and eats part of the male spider in order to prevent the male spider from mating with other females. PLoS ONE 10, e0132628 (2015). Shes not averse to catching and eating her sexual suitors before, during or after sex. Caerostris darwini (Darwin's Bark Spider) is a species of spiders in the family orb weavers. collected data. The species was named in honour of the naturalist Charles Darwin, with the description being prepared precisely 150 years after the publicatio One was found to contain 32 mayflies their short life rendered even shorter by this extraordinary hunter. Main image: An illustration of a Darwin's bark spider. 68, 555572 (2019). Alongside other related members of their genus, this species creates a special web-weaving pattern to attract each other during the mating period. Darwin's bark spider (scientific name Caerostris darwini) is an orb-weaver spider that produces one of the largest known orb webs, ranging from 900 to 28,000 square centimetres (140 to 4,340 sq in), with anchor lines spanning up to 25 metres (82 ft). & Hayashi, C. Y. Silken toolkits: biomechanics of silk fibers spun by the orb web spider (Fabricius 1775). This position allows the spiders to catch prey flying over the water, with webs observed to large web are thought to havecoevolvedat the same time, as the spider adapted to the habitat. She uses it to spin the biggest webs ever recorded: one orb measured 2.8m2, with anchor lines over 24m long. Determining spidroin expression is challenging because of fragmented transcripts and incorrect mapping of repetitive regions, especially given Trinity-assembled spidroin transcripts typically contain differing lengths of repetitive sequence20,54. Buchfink, B., Xie, C. & Huson, D. H. Fast and sensitive protein alignment using DIAMOND. Mater. The spider was discovered in Madagascar in the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park in 2009. These spiders lay their eggs into a sac that is produced beforehand in the female's body. a Schematic of spider silk proteins (spidroins) composed of tandem-repeated amino acid sequences (ensemble repeats) flanked by non-repetitive amino (N)- and carboxy (C-) terminal domains. Darwins bark spider is the world record holder. The toughness of the lines on their webs helps when it comes to catching prey and any description of their webs will include the facts that they are the longest spanning webs and that they are also among the toughest orb webs. Natl. Spidroin terminal domain sequences (see Supplementary Data8 for Accession numbers) were used in phylogenetic analyses13 along with C. darwini sequences sampling C-termini representing gland-associated spidroins (TuSp1, MiSp, Flag, AcSp1, PySp1, AgSp) having linked N-terminal domains from different araneoid species, and including a greater sampling of MaSp C-termini from the family Araneidae to which Caerostris is classified. & Hayashi, C. Y. Untangling spider silk evolution with spidroin terminal domains. 12, e1001921 (2014). Darwin's bark spider (scientific name Caerostris darwini) produces the largest known orb webs, ranging from 900 to 28,000 square centimeters. Orb-weaving spider Araneus ventricosus genome elucidates the spidroin gene catalogue, Spidroins and Silk Fibers of Aquatic Spiders, Conservation of a pH-sensitive structure in the C-terminal region of spider silk extends across the entire silk gene family, Functional trade-offs in cribellate silk mediated by spinning behavior, Genome sequence and silkomics of the spindle ermine moth, Yponomeuta cagnagella, representing the early diverging lineage of the ditrysian Lepidoptera, Hers and his: Silk glands used in egg sac construction by female spiders potentially repurposed by a modern male spider, Architectural evolution in cocoons spun by Hyalophora (Lepidoptera; Saturniidae) silk moth species, Modular structure, sequence diversification and appropriate nomenclature of seroins produced in the silk glands of Lepidoptera, Properties of orb weaving spider glycoprotein glue change during Argiope trifasciata web construction, http://emboss.sourceforge.net/apps/cvs/emboss/apps/getorf.html, Description of additional supplementary items, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Free-standing spider silk webs of the thomisid Saccodomus formivorus are made of composites comprising micro- and submicron fibers, Spidroin profiling of cribellate spiders provides insight into the evolution of spider prey capture strategies. TPM was re-estimated for all transcripts in this revised assembly using Salmon v0.8.253 and aggregating TPM for spidroin C-termini if they shared 95% identity at the amino acid level (Supplementary Data7). J. Biomol. Gatesy, J., Hayashi, C., Motriuk, D., Woods, J. J. Mol. To obtain additional expression information, a C. darwini MA gland transcriptome was also constructed from two Illumina RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) libraries producing 206,838 unique sequences. Her silk is the toughest biological material ever studied twice as strong as any other spiders and 10 times tougher than Kevlar. Protein secondary structure (e.g., percent helices, sheets, and/or turns) was bioinformatically predicted with the garnier EMBOSS plugin in Geneious 9.1.852. When she came to UMass Lowell 10 years ago, Garb established her spider lab, housed on the sixth floor of Olsen Hall. A Darwin's bark spider bite is a rare phenomenon and it contains an extremely low level of venom. J. Arachnol. We recognise that not all activities and ideas are appropriate and suitable for all children and families or in all circumstances. Amino acid compositions of spidroin sequences were determined with ProtParam (http://web.expasy.org/protparam). If material is not included in the articles Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. RNA from the MA silk glands of two individuals (cd46 and cd47) was submitted to the UMMS-DSC, where cDNA was synthesized separately for each individual using the creator SMARTer method (Takara Bio USA), and fragmented to 650bp prior to Illumina RNA-Seq library construction. Occasionally, spiders have been observed to chase away the flies when they land on something that the spider is eating.[2]. J. Biol. Collin, M. A., Clarke, T. H., Ayoub, N. A. Biol. The spider was discovered in Madagascar in the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park in 2009. Biol. 10, 243 (2010). All rights reserved. SMRT(R) sequencing solutions for large genomes and transcriptomes. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles Moumita has worked with many soccer teams and produced match reports, and sports is her primary passion. Darwin's bark spider (Caerostris darwini) is an orb-weaver spider that produces one of the largest known orb webs, with anchor lines spanning up to 25 metres (82 ft). In other species examined for this study or from the literature, this duct loop does not extend further than the distal portion of the ampullate sac (e.g., average duct length along sac=1.08mmSD 0.18; n=4, in Argiope aurantia; Fig. Nevertheless, our results imply the derivation of MaSp4 from a MaSp2 gene, consistent with the GPG-rich nature of both. These changes and increasing shear forces align spidroin monomers to form intermolecular secondary structures that determine silk mechanical performance (e.g. & Rising, A. Morphology and composition of the spider major ampullate gland and dragline silk. The remainder had top BLAST hits to spidroins associated with other silk types: PySp (piriform/cementing silk spidroin), MiSp (minor ampullate silk spidroin), TuSp (tubuliform/egg-case silk spidroin), Flag (flagelliform/capture spiral silk spidroin), AcSp (aciniform/wrapping silk spidroin), and AgSp (aggregate/glue spidroin; Supplementary Data1). Darwins bark spiders have low venom levels and their bites though rare would do no harm. Any infringement of copyright is purely unintentional. [5] The species was named in . [4] Its silk is the toughest biological material ever studied. Darwin's Bark Spider Physical Description and Identification Adults Size: Female spiders are 0.7 - 0.9 inches (1.7 - 2.2 cm) and the comparatively smaller male spiders are round 0.2 inches (0.5 cm). In contrast, males have a reddish or brownish hue with a similar distribution of hair. beforehand. A molecular phylogenetic study of 12 of the species of Caerostris, including C.darwini, produced the phylogenetic tree shown below. Size: Female spiders are 0.7 0.9 inches (1.7 2.2 cm) and the comparatively smaller male spiders are round 0.2 inches (0.5 cm). Extraordinarily tough dragline is hypothesized to be adaptive for C. darwini because it constructs the largest recorded orb webs, up to 2.8m2, suspended by bridgelines up to 25m across rivers, capturing prey inaccessible to most predators5,6. Information and pictures were taken from children's projects and where credited to that child does not claim to be original information. The femora of the legs are red and hairless. Caerostris darwinis lengthened MA glands spinning duct may also contribute to assembly of especially tough dragline. The flies often feed on the spider's catches before the spider wraps them. creative tips and more. a Orb-web of C. darwini illustrating major web elements: web frameline and radial lines composed of dragline (major ampullate (MA)) silk, and capture spiral composed of flagelliform silk fibers coated with aggregrate silk glue. 21 Likes, TikTok video from Curmhi Chettiar Imagery (@curmhi): "Harmless Darwin's bark spider but oh boy! This spider produces extraordinarily tough silk, with an average toughness of 350 MJ/m and over 50% extensibility, and can build river-bridging webs with a size of 2.8 m 2. The first leg is about 35mm (1.4in) long. was he HUGE!!". RNA was extracted from MA glands (one individual per extraction) by homogenization in TriZol and cleanup using Qiagens RNeasy kit, and removal of DNA. Hayashi, C. Y., Shipley, N. H. & Lewis, R. V. Hypotheses that correlate the sequence, structure, and mechanical properties of spider silk proteins. J. Exp. Biol. Fu, L., Niu, B., Zhu, Z., Wu, S. & Li, W. CD-HIT: accelerated for clustering the next-generation sequencing data. b Caerostris darwini MaSp proteins with each box presenting consensus repeat and repeat numbers determined from the longest sequence of each type (full sequences in Supplementary Data10); poly-alanine (An) motifs in red, GPGX (X=G, S, A, or Q) in blue, and GPGPQ motifs in purple. 5, 14621473 (2014). Rising, A. "Oral sexual contact seems to be an obligate sexual behavior in this species as all males did it before, in between, and after copulations, even up to 100 times," researcher Matjaz Gregoric of the Jovan Hadzi . Biol. Biol. Int. Second, the spiders perform almost no web site exploration. 275, 773784 (1998). (IOS-1656645) and I.A. 4)25,26. If you have an image of Darwin's bark spider, please let us know at [emailprotected]. N-terminal phylogenetic analyses included sequences linked to C-termini used in the aforementioned C-terminal phylogenetic analysis. Spider silk is chemically similar to other silk proteins, and is composed of long repetitive proteins. Forget a post-coitus cuddle, the female Darwin's bark spider will engage in sexual canabilism once the male's done the deed. Unusual proline-rich proteins (MaSp4a and MaSp4b) among Caerostris darwini major ampullate Spidroin (MaSp) proteins. Gaines, W. A., Sehorn, M. G. & Marcotte, W. R. Jr. Spidroin N-terminal domain promotes a pH-dependent association of silk proteins during self-assembly. BMC Bioinforma. The amino acid motifs composing spidroin repeats are highly variable, generating the distinctive mechanical and functional properties of each silk type9,10,11,12. She's good at writing about sports and sporting heroes. Spider silks are the toughest biological materials in nature due to combined strength and extensibility, leading to enormous interest in engineering silk-based biomaterials for industrial applications1. J. Given that this duct is the site of spidroin alignment and intermolecular bonding to form fibers, these results suggest the hypothesis that C. darwini has evolved distinct molecular and physiological mechanisms for producing extremely tough dragline silk for its exceptionally large webs. An average female Darwin's bark spider (C. darwini) is measured to have a weight of around 0.02 oz (0.5 g). However, the female is known to prey on the male after mating, often resulting in the capture and the death of the male spider. Nephila komaci, discovered in 2009, and some other Nephila species also make webs that can exceed 1m (3ft3in) across. The average toughness of the fibres is 350 MJ/m3, and some are up to 520 MJ/m3 making the silk twice as strong as any other spider silk known. Given this pipeline separates partial cDNAs of the same transcript only differing in length (because they are interpreted as full length), we further clustered tBLASTn hits to spidroin terminal domain queries using CD-HIT 4.6.446 at 95% nucleotide identity across their full length, selecting the longest sequence per cluster for analyses. Most of them have black bodies. 1). Are false widow spiders a danger to children? [4], The spider's web occupies a unique biological niche: "They build their web with the orb suspended directly above a river or the water body of a lake, a habitat that no other spider can use". et al. The females lay up to a couple of hundred eggs in a single mating period and the spiderlings hatch within the mother's body, developing here before they are released by the mother. MaSp2 also contains many GPGX motifs (X typically is G, S, A, or Q), which form -turns supplying dragline extensibility11,12. & Scheibel, T. Decoding the secrets of spider silk. Macromol. There are no concrete records about the description and identification of the spiderlings. [2], Caerostris darwini was first described by Matja Kuntner and Ingi Agnarsson in a 2010 publication. [8], The web of Darwin's bark spider is remarkable in that it is not only the longest spanning web ever observed, but is the largest orb web ever seen, at an area of up to 2.8 square metres (30sqft). Raw data associated with Figs. X-ray diffraction by Madurga et al.41 showed that C. darwini dragline has 14% crystallinity (-sheet structures), which was higher than the 7% crystallinity of Argiope aurantia dragline reported in that study, but is within ranges reported from Trichonephila clavipes dragline (1028% crystallinity) from other studies42,43. Here we investigate the diversity, expression, and evolution of C. darwini MA gland spidroins to identify unusual sequence features that might explain the extreme extensibility and toughness of C. darwini dragline. One pair lies to the side and the other behind. She has a PostGraduate Diploma in sports management, which enhanced her sports journalism skills, as well as a degree in journalism and mass communication. This particular spider is an orb-weaver those assertions two extraordinary titles: the silk they produce is . Duplication and concerted evolution of MiSp-encoding genes underlie the material properties of minor ampullate silks of cobweb weaving spiders. Nat. These behaviors include sexual cannibalism, male preference for teneral females, binding the mate with silk, genital mutilation, plugging of female genitalia by the male, and self-emasculation. She uses it to spin the biggest webs ever recorded: one orb measured 2.8m2, with anchor lines over 24m long. Mol. Please note: prices are correct and items are available at the time the article was published. Occasionally, spiders have been observed to chase away the flies when they land on something that the spider is eating. Mater. Search from 11 Used FIAT 124 Spider cars for sale, including a 2017 FIAT 124 Spider Abarth, a 2017 FIAT 124 Spider Classica, and a 2017 FIAT 124 Spider Lusso ranging in price from $22,999 to $29,590. Like other spiders of the genus, Darwin's bark spider displays extremesexual dimorphism, with large females (18 mm) and small males (6mm). Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. So, these female spiders are not only known for creating the largest orb webs and the toughest spider silk, but they are also pretty crafty creatures! MaSp1 and MaSp2 do not form reciprocally monophyletic clades, previously attributed to intergenic concerted evolution and selection to homogenize co-expressed termini24. Protoc. First, he times his approach when the female is feeling vulnerable just after shes moulted and her exoskeleton is still soft. Jin, H.-J. Nat. Females vary in total body length from about 18 to 22mm (0.7 to 0.9in), males being around one third or less of this length, at about 6mm (0.2in). These unique behaviors result in a giant, yet rather simplified web. The spider was discovered in Madagascar in the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park in 2009. conceived the project. & Kingsford, C. Salmon provides fast and bias-aware quantification of transcript expression. Third, they construct the orb capture area below the initial bridge line. Nature 482, 7276 (2012). That the GPGPQ motifs of MaSp4a and MaSp4b appear restricted to C. darwini suggests a recent origin of these proteins within the genus from MaSp2 genes, consistent with selection for tough and extensible silk to support enormous orb webs. Int. 14, 42234231 (2015). 4d, Supplementary Fig. Anyone using the information provided by Kidadl does so at their own risk and we can not accept liability if things go wrong. Biol. The habitat of this spider can be described as wet and marshy land adjacent to water bodies. & Robson, B. Marhabaie, M., Leeper, T. C. & Blackledge, T. A. 2a; Supplementary Data4b). overview; data; media; articles; maps; names cc-by-nc-sa-3. J. Linn. Results were used to compute percent molarity of amino acids in samples. Nature 424, 10571061 (2003). Chem. By joining Kidadl you agree to Kidadls Terms of Use and Privacy Policy and consent to receiving marketing communications from Kidadl. Darwin's bark spider is an orb-weaver spider that produces the largest known orb webs, ranging from 900 to 28,000 square centimetres ,[2][3] with bridge lines spanning up to 25 metres . Fourth, the orb contains two types of radial threads, with those in the upper half of the web doubled. Darwin's bark spider: meet the spider that eats her sexual partner. Translations were produced based on the frame of significant BLAST hits, or the longest open reading frame in the absence of a BLAST hit. She casts over streams with the web resting above water where it can trap flying insects as they hatch. Thus, high expression of the proline-rich MaSp4a in MA glands supports its functional role in C. darwini dragline mechanics. However, it may be assumed that, like most other species spiderlings, they too disperse from their mother after maturation. Chin, J. et al. Simo, F. A., Waterhouse, R. M., Ioannidis, P., Kriventseva, E. V. & Zdobnov, E. M. BUSCO: assessing genome assembly and annotation completeness with single-copy orthologs. Nat. Our recommended activities are based on age but these are a guide. Their discovery dates back to the year 2009, in Madagascars Andasibe-Mantadia National Park. De novo transcript sequence reconstruction from RNA-seq using the Trinity platform for reference generation and analysis. If these motifs form -turns similar to GPGX motifs as suggested by Garnier analysis, this would introduce more secondary structures resembling the nano-springs of flagelliform silk by which C. darwini dragline could achieve greater toughness through increased extensibility.
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